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COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS
AND AVIATION TERMS
Revision date September 2007 2006
A B C
D E F
G H I
J K L
M N O
P Q R
S T U
V W Y
X Z
AAE: Above Aerodrome Elevation
A/FD: Airport/Facility Directory, a book updated
very 54 days with detailed information about
Airports within its coverage area.
ABEAM: An aircraft is abeam a fix, point or object
when that point is approximately 90 degrees to the right
or left of the aircraft track.
ABORT: To terminate a planned aircraft maneuver.
ACKNOWLEDGE: An expression used in radio communication
meaning "let me know that you have received and understood
the message"
A/C: Abbreviation for Aircraft.
ACC: Area Control Center.
ACFT: Another possible abbreviation for Aircraft
ACTIVE RUNWAY: Another expression for Runway in
use.
ADF: Automatic Direction Finder, a radio system
that senses and indicates the direction to an NDB
ADVISE INTENTIONS: An expression used in radio
communication meaning "tell me what you are planning
to do"
AGL: Above Ground Level, the Height expressed in
feet measured above Ground Level.
AIRCRAFT CALL SIGN: A group of alphanumeric characters
used to identify an aircraft in air-ground communications.
AIP: Aeronautical Information Publication
AIRMET: A weather advisory concerning hazardous
weather conditions such as icing, turbulence, low ceilings,
etc.
AIRWAY: A corridor between radio navaids.
ALT: Abbreviation for Altitude, the vertical distance
of a level or an object considered a point, measured from
Mean Sea Level
ALTIMETER SETTING: The barometric pressure reading
used to adjust the pressure altimeter for variations in
atmospheric pressure or to the standard setting of 1013 hectoPascal. (Hpa)
AMSL: Altitude Above Mean Sea Level
APPROACH: An ATC facility that provides control
for aircraft arriving and departing an airport.
ARC: A curved ground track of an aircraft flying
at a constant distance from a navaid referenced by distance
measuring equipment.
ARTCC: Air Route Traffic Control Center, or just
"Center", the en-route air traffic control facility.
ATC: Air Traffic Control, a control facility at
airports and other controlled airspace.
ATIS: Automatic Terminal Information Service, a
recorded message with information about an airports active
runways, weather conditions, etc.
Top
BACKTRACK: To taxi on the active runway in the
direction opposite to landing aircraft, usually to position
the aircraft for takeoff at an airport with no taxiways.
BASE: The part of the landing traffic pattern
where the plane flies at a 90 degree angle to that of
the landing runway.
BEARING: The horizontal direction to or from
any point, usually measured clockwise from true north.
Magnetic north or a reference point through 360'.
BRAKING ACTION REPORT: A report of conditions
at the airport movement area providing information to
a pilot about the degree of braking quality that can
be expected (good, fair, poor, nil)
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CAVOK: Ceiling and Visibility OK, visibility is
10km or more, no clouds under 5000Ft (or highest minimum sector altitude) no fog or mist, and
no precipitation, thunderstorm or drifting snow.
CDI: Course Deviation Indicator, the vertical needle
on the OBI which indicates deviation from the desired
VOR radial
CEILING: The height above earth of the lowest cloud
layer reported as broken, overcast or obscuration.
CENTER: Air Route Traffic Control Center, or ARTCC,
the enroute air traffic control facility.
CLASS-A: Controlled airspace, generally any airspace
between 18000' MSL up to and including FL600 (roughly
60000').
CLASS-B: Controlled airspace around the busiest
airports, usually including several rings with different
altitude limits and extended 20 miles from the center.
CLASS-C: Controlled airspace around moderately
busy airports, generally in two rings extended out 10
miles and up to 4000 feet.
CLASS-D: Controlled airspace around any airport
with an active tower, generally extended out 5 miles and
up to 2500 feet.
CLASS-E: Any controlled airspace that does not
fall under Class A through D.
CLEARANCE: Another expression for Air traffic control
clearance
CLEARANCE LIMIT: The point to where an aircraft
is granted an ATC clearance
CLEARED AS FILED: Another expression for Cleared
via flight-planned route
CLEARED FOR TAKE OFF: An expression used by ATC
to authorize an aircraft to depart. The clearance includes
the specific aircraft call sign and the latest known airport
conditions.
CLEARED TO LAND: An expression used by ATC to authorize
an aircraft to land. The clearance includes the specific
aircraft call sign, latest known airport conditions and
runway designator.
CLEARED VIA FLIGHT PLAN ROUTE: An expression used
by ATC to indicate that an aircraft is cleared to proceed
in accordance with the route filed in the Flight Plan.
COMPOSITE FLIGHT PLAN: A flight plan that specifies
VFR operation for part of the flight and IFR for another
part.
CONTROLLED AIRSPACE: An airspace of defined dimensions
within which ATC service is provided
Co-ORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME: The time system used
in aviation and given to the nearest minute given from
0000 to 2359. Written abbreviation Z or UTC. Spoken expression
Zulu or Universal.
CORRECTION: An expression used in radio communication
to indicate that an error has been made in the transmission
and that the correction follows.
COURSE: The intended direction of flight along
the ground horizontally.
CROSSING TRACKS: Used in the application of separation,
indicating tracks that converge or divert at an angle
of 45 to 125 degrees.
CROSSWIND: In reference to wind conditions, a wind
not parallel to the runway or the path of an aircraft.
CROSSWIND LEG: The part of the traffic pattern
when the plane flies at right angles to the landing runway
at the takeoff end.
CTAF: Common Traffic Advisory Frequency, a radio
frequency used at non-controlled airports for pilots to
self-announce their position and intentions.
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DEP: Departure Control, a function of an approach
control facility providing ATC service for departing IFR
and under certain conditions departing VFR aircraft.
DEVIATION: The departure from a current clearance,
to avoid weather, turbulence or similar.
DEVIATION: The angular difference between Magnetic
and True headings.
DH: Decision Height, the height on an ILS approach
at which the pilot must decide if he can complete the
approach or must do a missed approach.
DISPLACED THRESHOLD: A threshold not located at
the end of the runway.
DME: Distance Measuring Equipment, radio equipment
that allows the pilot to determine the distance to a navaid;
usually coupled with a VOR.
DOWNWIND LEG: The part of the landing pattern where
the plane flies parallel to the runway (usually to the
right of the runway) opposite the direction of landing.
Top
EAT: Expected Approach Time, the time at which
an ATC expects an arriving aircraft following a delay,
will be able to leave the holding fix.
EAC: Expected Approach Clearance Time
ELT: Emergency Locator Transmitter.
ENTRY FIX: The first reporting point, determined
by a navigation aid, over which an aircraft is expected
to pass upon entering a control area.
ETA: Estimated Time of Arrival, the time of day
when a flight is expected to be completed.
ETD: Estimated Time of Departure, the time of day
when a flight is expected to commence.
ETE: Expected Time En-route, the amount of time
a flight is expected to take from beginning to end.
EXECUTE MISSED APPROACH: An expression used by
ATC to instruct a pilot on an Instrument Approach Procedure
to initiate a climb, continue to the Missed Approach Point
and follow the missed approach procedure as described
or as assigned by ATC.
EXIT FIX: The last reporting points, determined
by a navigation aid, over which an aircraft is expected
to pass upon leaving a control area.
EXPEDITE: An expression used by ATC when immediate
action is required by the pilot in order to avoid the
development of a situation.
Top
FAF: Final Approach Fix, a specific position ("fix")
from with an instrument approach to landing is begun.
FAP: Final Approach Point, a specific position
on a non-precision instrument approach where the plane
is established inbound on the final approach course.
FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT: On an instrument approach,
the segment from the final approach fix to the runway.
FINAL: The part of the landing pattern just before
the plane lands, where the plane is lined up with the
runway.
FIR: Flight Information Region
FIS: Flight Information Service
FIX: A specific geographic position, determined
visually or relative to radio navaids.
FL: Flight Level, an altitude based on standard
instead of actual air pressure; used for flights climbing
above the transition altitude. Flight Levels correspond
to 1000 foot increments in altitude.
FMS: Flight Management System, a computer system
in large aircraft used to aid in navigation of pre-programmed
routes.
FSS: Flight Service Station, a facility that provide
pilot briefings, en-route communication, NOTAMS, weather
and other information.
Top
GLIDE: Slope or Path, a system providing vertical
(altitude) guidance to a landing airplane; for example
a VASI or ILS.
GO-AROUND: Other expression for Overshoot
GPS: Global Positioning System, a system of navigation
using a large group of satellites to determine position.
GND: Ground Control, and ATC service provided to
prevent collisions on the maneuvering area and to ensure
the orderly flow of aircraft on the ground.
Top
HAA: Height Above Airport, the height of the MDA
(Minimum Descent Altitude) above the published
airport altitude.
HANDOFF: The process of transferring the radar
identification of an aircraft target and radio communications
to another controller.
HAT: Height Above Touchdown, the height of the
DH (Decision Height) or MDA (Minimum Descent Altitude)
above the highest runway elevation in the TDZ (Touchdown
Zone).
HDG: Heading, the direction in which the nose of
the aircraft is pointed, expressed in degrees.
HEAVY: An aircraft capable of takeoff weight of
300,000 pounds or more.
HEIGHT: Elevation above a ground referece point
HF: High Frequency, the radio frequency band between
3 and 30 MHz.
HIGH SPEED TAXIWAY: A long radius taxiway that
is designed to expedite aircraft turning off the active
runway after landing traveling at high speed up to 60kts.
(Also called, High Speed Exit, High Speed Turnoff, Long
Radius Exit, Rapid Exit Taxiway and/or Turnoff Taxiway.
HIWAS: Hazardous In-flight Weather Advisory Service,
continuous recorded hazardous weather information broadcast
over certain VOR stations.
HOLD: A procedure in which a plane flies a racetrack
shaped pattern relative to a fix while awaiting clearance
to proceed.
HOLDING PATTERN: A predetermined racetrack pattern
flown as part of holding procedure.
HOLDING PROCEDURE: A predetermined maneuver keeping
an aircraft within a specified airspace whilst awaiting
further clearance.
HOLDING STACK: Multiple aircraft holding at a common
fix with Vertical separation
HOLD SHORT: An expression used by ATC to instruct
aircraft to hold away from the edge of a runway whilst
waiting for permission to cross or proceed onto a runway.
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IAF: Initial Approach Fix, the fixes on an instrument
approach chart that identify the beginning of the initial
approach segment.
IAP: Instrument Approach Plates, a book of charts
defining instrument landing approaches.
IAP: Instrument Approch Procedure, a series of
predefined maneuvers that transfer a plane on an instrument
flight to the point where a landing can be made visually.
ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization
IDENT: A request from ATC for a pilot to activate
this function on his transponder.
IF: Intermediate Fix, the fix that starts the intermediate
approach segment of an instrument approach procedure.
IFR: Instrument Flight Rules, the set of rules
governing flight solely through the use of instruments;
often used to mean weather conditions that require instrument
flight.
ILS: Instrument Landing System, a two part radio
navigation system consisting of a localizer for left/right
guidance and a glide slope for vertical guidance.
IM: Inner Marker, a radio beacon used during an
ILS landing approach located near the end of the runway.
IMC: Instrument Meteorological Conditions, weather
conditions that are such that instrument (IFR) flight
is required.
IMMEDIATE TAKE-OFF: An expression used by ATC to
indicate the pilot is expected to taxi onto the runway
and take off in one continuous movement, also called a
Rolling Take-Off.
IAS: Indicated Airspeed.
INITIAL APPROACH SEGMENT: On an instrument approach,
the segment between the IAF (initial approach fix) and
the intermediate fix.
INTERMEDIATE APPROACH SEGMENT: On an instrument
approach, the segment between the intermediate fix and
the final approach fix.
INTERSECTING RUNWAYS: Two or more runways that
cross or meet.
INTERSECTION: A defined geographic point (defined
via navaids) used as a reference point during instrument
flight.
INTERSECTION: At an airport, the point where two
runways, a runway and taxiway or two taxiways cross.
Top
JET ROUTE: Air routes, usually from VOR to VOR,
used to serve aircraft operating at higher Flight Levels.
JET STREAM: A stream of high-speed winds present
at high altitudes.
Top
LANDING MINIMUMS: The minimum visibility (due to
clouds, etc.) under which an instrument approach can be
legally completed.
LATERAL SEPARATION: The separation between aircraft
at the same altitude expressed in terms of distance between
tracks.
LDA: Localizer Type Directional Aid, an instrument
landing aid similar to a localizer but not aligned with
the runway.
LEVEL: The vertical position of an aircraft in
flight and variously height, altitude or flight level.
LF: Low Frequency, the radio frequency band between
30 and 300Khz
LOCALIZER: An instrument landing aid, used to provide
horizontal alignment with the runway; similar to a VOR
but with only a single radial and more accurate.
LORAN: Longe Range Navigation, a system of ground
based radio stations that can be used to determine an
exact geographic location.
LOW APPROACH: An approach at a low altitude over
a runway, without the airplane actually touching down.
Top
MACH: The ratio of true airspeed to the speed of
sound; varies with altitude.
MAINTAIN: An expression used by ATC meaning that
the aircraft must reach or remain at the Altitude or Flight
Level specified, or that the aircraft must maintain a
given minimum or maximum speed as specified.
MAP: Missed Approach Point, a point along an instrument
approach at which as missed approach must be started in
the required visual reference has not been seen.
MARKER: A navaid beacon transmitting straight up,
allowing a plane with the proper equipment to determine
when a specific point on an instrument approach has been
passed.
MCA: Minimum Crossing Altitude, the lowest altitude
at which a plane on an instrument flight can cross a specific
fix.
MDA: Minimum Descent Altitude, the lowest altitude
(MSL) to which an instrument landing approach may go before
visually acquiring the airport or beginning a missed approach.
MEA: Minimum Enroute Altitude, for instrument flight
the lowest altitude between navaids which assures acceptable
navaid signals and safe obstacle clearance.
MHA: Minimum Holding Altitude, the lowest altitude
for a specific holding pattern which assures navaid reception
and obstacle clearance.
MIA: Minimum IFR Altitudes, minimum altitudes for
instrument flight as published on IFR charts.
MINIMUMS: weather condition requirements for a
particular type of operation.
MINIMUMS: Weather conditions that determine whether
flight is possible; when below minimums landing and taking
off is not allowed.
MISSED APPROACH: A predefined maneuver used when
an instrument approach fails.
MM: Middle Marker, a radio beacon along an ILS
landing approach, normally located at or near the decision
height.
MOCA: Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude, the
minimum published altitude within 22 nm of a VOR meeting
obstacle clearance requirements.
MRA: Minimum Reception Altitude, the lowest altitude
at which an intersection can be determined using the navaids
that define the intersection.
MSA: Minimum Safe Altitude, the minimum altitude
that meets legal requirements, typically 1000 feet above
obstacles.
MSL: Mean Sea Level
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NAVAID: Navigational Aid, a radio transmitter such
as a VOR, NDB, beacon, etc. that is used for radio navigation.
NDB: Non-Directional Beacon, a radio navaid that
simple transmits a signal usually received by a plane's
ADF to determine the direction from the plane to the NDB.
NEGATIVE: An expression used in radio communication
meaning NO, Permission Not Granted or That is Not Correct.
NO COMPASS APPROACH: A radar approach or vector
provided in the event of compass of directional indication
malfunction. ATC instead of providing heading instructions
will observe the rarar track and issue control instructions
"Turn Right", "Turn Left" "Stop
Turn" as required.
NONPRECISION APPROACH: An instrument approach where
no electronic glide-slope is provided.
NORTH ATLANTIC ORGANIZED TRACK SYSTEM: A variable
track structure developed daily by appropriate Oceanic
Area Control Centers (Gander west and Shanwick east) to
create a series of minimum time tracks across the North
Atlantic (NAT)
NOTAM: Notice To Airmen, news of interest to pilots
regarding hazards, changes in service, procedures, etc.
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OBI: Omni-Bearing Indicator, the dial that displays
information from the VOR receiver radio, indicating radial,
TO/FROM and glide-slope.
OBS: Omni-Bearing Selector (course selector knob),
the control used to select the radial on the OBI dial.
OBST: Obstacle, all fixed and mobile objects that
are located on an area intended for the surface movement
of an aircraft or that extend above a defined surface
intended to protect aircraft in flight.
OCA: Obstacle Clearance Altitude, The lowest altitude
above the elevation of a runway threshold used in establishing
compliance with the appropriate published criteria.
OCA: Oceanic Control Area
OCL: Obstacle Clearance Limit, the height above
the field elevation below which the minimum prescribed
vertical clearance cannot be maintained either on approach
or in the event of a missed approach.
OL: Obstacle Light, Anti Collision lights on buildings,
towers, antennas or terrain close by an airfield giving
visual reference to pilots.
OM: Outer Marker, a radio beacon along an ILS landing
approach typically near the point where the ILS glide
slope is intercepted and about 4 to 7 miles from the runway.
Top
PAPI: Precision Approach Path Indicator, similar
to a VASI but using four lights to more accurately indicate
the glide-slope.
PIC: Pilot In Command, the person actually responsible
for the operation of the aircraft in flight.
PIREP: Pilot Weather Report, a report of weather
conditions encountered during flight.
POSITION AND HOLD: Taxi onto the runway, into takeoff
position, but do not take off until clearance from ATC
is received.
PRECISION APPROACH: An instrument approach where
electronic glide-slope guidance is provided (e.g., an
ILS approach).
PROCEDURE TURN: A maneuver used on instrument approaches
to reverse direction and establish an aircraft on the
intermediate approach segment or final course.
PULL UP AND GO AROUND: An instruction given by
ATC when in the controller's judgement, the aircraft landing
procedure cannot safely be continued to touchdown.
PUSH BACK: An expression used to indicate the rearward
movement of an aircraft being towed
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QNH: Atmospheric Pressure at Mean Sea Level, in
Millibars
QFE : Atmospheric Pressure at Aerodrome Elevation,
in Millibars
QNE: Atmospheric Setting at Standard Barometric
Pressure
QDM: The Magnetic Track to a station, usually a
NDB, but could also be used for a VOR or VHF station
QDT: The Magnetic Track outbound from a station,
usually a NDB but could be used for a VOR or VHF station.
Top
RADIAL: A magnetic bearing extending from a VOR
station.
RADAR: A radio detection device that provides information
on range, azimuth or elevation of objects.
RADAR APPROACH: An approach executed by an aircraft
under the direction of a radar controller.
RADAR CONTACT: Another expression for Radar Identified,
used by ATC to inform a pilot that radar identification
is established.
RADAR CONTROLLED AIRSPACE : A controlled airspace
within which radar control service is provided.
RADAR CONTROL SERVICE : The control of aircraft
by ATC through the provision of vectors or speed control
or both, to establish the required separation between
aircraft.
RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED: Expression used by ATC
to inform a pilot that the provision of radar services
has ceased.
RADAR VECTORING: Other expression for vector
REIL: Runway End Identifier Lights, a pair of white
flashing strobe lights located at each corner of the end
of a runway.
REPORTING POINT: A specific fix where the position
of an aircraft can be reported.
RMI: Radio Magnetic Indicator, an aircraft navigation
instrument coupled with a gyro compass that indicates
the direction to a navaid plus bearing with respect the
aircraft heading.
RUNWAY HEADING: the exact magnetic heading of the
runway centerline to the nearest degree.
RUNWAY NUMBER: determined from the runway magnetic
heading rounded to the nearest ten degrees (i.e., a runway
with a heading of 274 degrees would be runway 27).
RVR: Runway Visual Range, the distance that a pilot
can see down the runway from the approach end; needed
for instrument landings in reduced visibility.
RATE ONE-HALF TURN: The turn rate of 1.5' per second
normally used by aircraft operating in 250kts or more.
RATE ONE TURN: The turn rate of 3' per second normally
used by aircraft operating at less than 250kts.
RVSM: Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum. The
application of 1000ft vertical separation between flight
levels FL290 and FL410 between RVSM certified aircraft.
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SAY AGAIN: An expression used to request a repetition
of the last transmission.
SAY ALTITUDE: An expression used by ATC to request
an aircraft's specific altitude or Flight Level
SECTIONAL: A chart using a scale of 1:500,000 used
for VFR flight.
SEPARATION: The spacing between aircraft, altitudes,
Flight Levels or Tracks.
SID: Standard Instrument Departure, a specific
airport departure route usually used for instrument flights.
SIGMET: A weather advisory concerning conditions
of significant interest to all aircraft, such as severe
turbulence, severe icing, etc.
SPEED ADJUSTMENT: An ATC procedure used to request
pilots to adjust speed as directed to provide the desired
separation.
SQUAWK: Activate and set the aircraft's transponder
to a specific four-digit code.
SSR: Secondary Surveillance Radar, a back up system
integral to the proper operation of the transponder.
STANDARD RATE TURN: A turn of three degrees per
second; also called a two minute turn because a complete
circle takes two minutes to complete.
STAR: Standard Terminal Arrival, a specific airport
arrival route that begins some distance away and puts
the plane into a standard instrument landing approach.
STOP AND GO : A procedure where an aircraft will
land, make a complete stop on the runway, and then take
off again.
STRAIGHT IN: An approach and landing where the
normal traffic pattern is skipped and the plane intercepts
the runways heading and lands straight ahead.
SVFR: Special VFR Flight. A visual flight authorized
by ATC to operate within a control zone under meteorological
conditions that are bellow VFR weather conditions.
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TARGET: The indication on a radar display of a
primary radar echo or a transponder reply.
TCAS: Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System.
TCH: Threshold Crossing Height, the height above
the runway that an aircraft should cross the runway threshold
on an ILS approach.
TDZE: Touchdown Zone Elevation, the highest elevation
in the first 3000' of the landing runway.
THRESHOLD: the beginning of the portion of the
runway that is usable for landing.
TOUCH AND GO: A practice landing where the plane
touches downs, continues rolling, and takes off again.
TOUCHDOWN ZONE: The first 3000' of the runway,
beginning at the threshold.
TRACK: The actual path of the aircraft over the
surface of the earth.
TRAFFIC PATTERN: The traffic flow of airplanes
landing and taking off from an airport, consisting of
upwind, crosswind, downwind, base and final legs.
TRANSITION ALTITUDE: The Altitude
above Mean Sea Level, used for departing aircraft, where the QNH needs
to be set to local Atmospheric Pressure.Above the TA the aircraft
altimiter pressure setting should be adjusted to the standard pressure
setting and Flight Levels are used.
TRANSITION LEVEL: The Flight Level
used for decending aircraft at which, the pilot start to refer to
altitude of the aircraft by setting the altimeter to the QNH for the
airfield or region.
TRANSPONDER: A device in a plane that responds
to ground signals and returns information such as the
squawk code, altitude, etc.
TRSA: Terminal Radar Service Area, airspace surrounding
certain airports where ATC provides radar vectoring, sequencing
and separation.
Top
UHF: Ultra High Frequency, the frequency band between
300 and 3000 MHz
UNABLE: An expression used indicating the inability
to comply with a specific request, clearance or instruction.
UNICOM: A radio facility that may provide airport
information at certain airports.
UPWIND: The part of the traffic pattern where the
plane flies parallel to the landing runway in the direction
of landing.
UTC: Universal, spoken Expression for Coordinated
Universal Time another expression for ZULU time.
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VASI: Visual Approach Slope Indicator, a system
of lights place adjacent to a runway that allow the pilot
to maintain a proper glide-slope for landing.
VECTOR: A heading given by ATC to pilots to provide
navigational guidance.
VERTICAL SEPARATION: The separation between aircraft
expressed in units of vertical distance.
VFR ON TOP: ATC authorization for an IFR aircraft
to operate in VFR conditions at an appropriate VFR altitude
above the clouds.
VFR: Visual Flight Rules, the rules that govern
flight under visual conditions; also used to indicate
that weather conditions are suitable for visual flight.
VHF: Very High Frequency, the band between 30 and
300 MHz.
VISUAL APPROACH: An approach conducted on an IFR
flight plan which authorizes the pilot to proceed visually
and clear of clouds to the airport.
VISUAL DESCENT POINT: A defined point on a non-precision
instrument approach from which normal descent from the
MDA to the runway can be commenced.
VMC: Visual Meteorological Conditions, weather
conditions where visibility and cloud ceiling allows legal
VFR flight.
VOR: Very High Frequency Omni Directional Range
Station, a ground based navigation aid transmitting VHF
navigation signals, 360 degrees in azimuth, oriented from
magnetic north.
VORTAC: VHF Omni Directional Range/Tactical Air
Navigation, a radio navaid providing VOR azimuth, TACAN
azimuth and TACAN distance measuring (DME) at one site
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WAKE TURBULENCE: Turbulent Air behind an aircraft
caused by one or any of the following:
a) Wing tip Vortices
b) Rotor tip Vortices
c) Jet engine blast
d) Rotor down-wash
e) Propeller wash
WAYPOINT: A geographical fix position used for routing
or instrument approach or reporting point.
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ZULU or Z: Another term for Coordinated Universal
Time.
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